Physics of Radiology and Imaging

1. Fundamental Concepts 1
Measurement and units 1
Density, mole, pressure, and gas laws 3
Mechanics 4
Temperature and heat 7
Atomic structure 10
Electromagnetic radiation 15
Radiological mathematics 19
2. Electricity, Electronics and Magnetism 24
Electric charge 24
Electrical potential 25
Conductors, insulators and semiconductors 26
Capacitance 31
Electrical current 32
Electrical power 35
Magnetism 36
Electromagnetic induction 39
Alternating current 42
3. Physics of X-rays 50
Discovery of X-rays 50
Production of X-rays 51
X-ray tube design 57
Historical X-ray tubes 64
Modern X-ray tubes 66
Filters 75
Scattered radiations 77
4. Generation and Control of X-rays 80
Transformer 80
Rectifier circuit 88
Filament circuit 91
Kilovoltage (kV) control circuit 92
Single-phase X-ray generator 94
Three-phase X-ray generator 96
High-frequency generator 98
Exposure switching and timers 100
Quality and intensity of X-rays 102
Generator rating and heat loading 105
5. Radiation Units and Interactions with Medium 107
Radiation units: Activity 107
– Exposure-roentgen 108
– Kerma 109
CONTENTS
x The Physics of Radiology and Imaging
– Absorbed dose-Gray/Rad 110
– RBE, Equivalent dose and effective dose 112
Radiation interaction with matter 115
– Attenuation 115
– Coherent or Rayleigh scattering 118
– Compton scattering 119
– Photoelectric effect 120
– Pair production 122
– Relative importance of attenuation process 123
6. Radiation Detection and Measurements 130
Radiation detection 130
Types of detectors 131
Practical dosimeters 143
Area monitoring 149
Personnel monitoring systems 152
7. Screen-Film Radiography 157
Primary radiological image 158
Contrast agents, Grids 159
Cassette 163
Intensifying screen 164
Structure of X-ray film 167
Automatic film processor 178
Image Quality 180
8. Computed and Digital Radiography 187
Computed radiography 189
Charge-coupled devices 195
Digital radiography systems 196
Comparison of detector systems and image quality 200
Picture archiving and communication system 203
9. Fluoroscopy Imaging 205
Visual physiology 205
Direct vision fluoroscopy and Image intensifier fluoroscopy 206
X-ray generator 216
Digital fluoroscopy 218
Image quality 224
Patient radiation dose 225
10. Mammography 226
Breast anatomy, Mammography equipment 227
Screen-Film system 234
Magnification mammography 235
Digital mammography 236
Stereotactic biopsy system, Breast tomosynthesis 238
Radiation dose, Quality assurance 239
Contents xi
11. Computed Tomography Scanner 242
Computed tomography 243
Equipment for computed tomography 249
Generation of CT scanners 253
Image reconstruction 257
Helical and multislice computed tomography 261
CT image quality, artifacts and radiation dose 267
12. Gamma Imaging 273
Radioactivity 273
Nuclear transformation 276
Production of radioisotopes 280
Radiopharmaceuticals 285
Gamma camera 288
Single photon emission computed tomography 294
Positron emission tomography 295
PET-CT scanner 301
13. Radiological Health and Safety 306
Sources of radiation 306
Biological effects of radiation 308
Principles of radiation protection 313
Planning of diagnostic X-ray installations 322
Quality assurance in diagnostic radiology 326
Atomic energy regulation board 328
14. Ultrasound Imaging 334
Basics of ultrasound 334
Ultrasound transducer 340
Image data acquisition 347
Ultrasound image display 351
Doppler ultrasound 355
Ultrasound image quality, artifacts and bioeffects 362
15. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 369
MRI: The basics 369
Relaxation times 375
MRI signal localization 380
MRI imaging sequences 384
MRI instrumentation and biosafety 394
MRI image quality and artifacts 398
Index 403